Causes of the Egyptian Revolution

Causes of the Egyptian Revolution CHAPTER II Literature Review Revolution is a process of rapid and fundamental change of the social, economic, and political systems, leading to collapsing an old regime and its associated elite. By studying concepts and historical examples of revolutions, we can find some valuable points common for all revolutionist movements, thus helping analyze the motives of the Egyptian Revolution. Ted Robert Gurr defines revolution as, â€Å"highly organized political violence with wide spread general participation, designed to over-throw the regime or dissolve the state and accompanied by extensive violence.†[1] The term revolution can be used differently in many contexts; however, it usually means a violent overthrow of a regime or social structure or a great sudden change in social principles. A revolution typically characterizes a complete change from one way of doing something to a different way that is usually represents the reverse. Gurr writes, men are quick to aspire beyond their social means and quick to anger when those means prove inadequate, but slow to accept their limitations.[2] He also states, â€Å"people act out their frustrations if they believe that they stand a chance of relieving some of their discontent through violence.[3] He explains this, however, by signifying that angry people are likely to be more open to arguments that violence would help, so emotion eliminates the calculation, making acts less than rational. Jeff Goodwin gives two explanations for revolution. He defined revolution in one definition as any and all instances in which a state or a political regime is overthrown and thereby transformed by a popular movement in an irregular, extra-constitutional and/or violent fashion. He made also a narrow definition and points out â€Å"revolutions entail not only mass mobilization and regime change, but also more or less rapid and fundamental social, economic and/or cultural change, during or soon after the struggle for state power.[4] Both definitions tell us that revolutions are instruments for changing a system. From another perspective, Jack Goldstone defines revolution as an effort to transform the political institutions and the justifications for political authority in society, accompanied by formal or informal mass mobilization and non-institutionalized actions that undermine authorities. [5] He does not talk about large mobilization movements. He simply mentions revolutions as an effort to change political institutions. Proponents of Marxist thought use the term revolution in a very particular way. While reforms are changes in existing social and cultural system, social revolutions cause a sudden shift from one social order to another. For example, Theda Skocpol described revolution as rapid, basic transformations of a societys state and class structures; and they are accompanied and in part carried through by class-based revolts from below,†[6] attaching revolutions to a combination of several conflicts between state, bourgeoisies and the lower class people. She also states, â€Å"revolutions are not just extreme forms of individual or collective behavior. They are distinctive conjectures of socio-historical structures and processes,†[7] attributing revolutions to social elements. What observable political conditions ought to prevail before a revolution begins? Charles Tilly states that three conditions appear to be necessary, and a fourth strongly facilitating. The three apparently necessary conditions are as follows: Alliances or coalitions of contenders, bringing forward claims to the control the state that is currently being controlled by the members of the regime. A significant part of the given population’s commitment to those claims Reluctance or ineffectiveness of the government to put an end to these alternative coalitions or people’s commitment to their claims. Establishment of alliances or coalitions between members of the regime and the contenders bringing forward alternative claims.[8] From a different of view, James Defronzo explains conditions that make revolutions possible in terms of five factors: mass frustration, divided elites, unifying motivations that unite different social groups in support of revolution, a severe political crisis for the government including legitimacy loss and loyalty of armed forces, and a permissive or tolerant world environment in which other nations do not intervene to stop a revolution from developing.[9] He argues that a high amount of mass discontent usually stems from three steps independently or a combination of them: a decline in living situations; a change in the moral tolerability of current conditions involving people feeling that their lives can and should be better; or a period of betterment in the people’s living conditions followed by a severe decline.[10] Displeasure previous to an outburst of a revolutionary movement is often deepened by sensational events that stir up many people such as violent government suppression of challengers. According to Jack Goldstone, revolutions rarely triumph because the conditions rarely coincide. Monarchic states are able to sustain popular support through making appeals respect for nationalism and royal tradition. Privileged elites, who are often enriched by such governments, will only abandon them if their conditions or the doctrine of the rulers changes radically. It is difficult for a general mobilization to triumph because it requires reconciliation of the different interests of the rural or urban poor, students, the middle class people, and many ethnic or social groups. There are many events in history such as student activists, workers strikes, and peasant uprisings that were quickly suppressed because they were a movement of one single group, rather than of a large one. Other international states have often gotten involved in these uprisings to support authoritarian rulers in order to preserve balance and make the international system stable.[11] Even if revolutionary efforts fail, they can possibly result in significant social change. Government or dominant groups will make concessions so as to settle down the protestors, when people try to make an important change in society. Even if these concessions do not satisfy the people’s demands of a total change, they can indicate significant progress. At times, social change can take place step by step because unsuccessful revolts gradually lead a society into a different way, until a new lifestyle is finally achieved. Not all turbulence should be labelled as revolution. Political turmoil is highly possible during the process of modernization. In Samuel Huntington’s words â€Å"it is not a lack of modernity rather the efforts to achieve it that causes political turmoil.†[12] Social mobilization and economic development may be disruptive. For example, economic development results in high economic inequality and social mobilization causing that inequality to be less legitimate.[13] A discrepancy between the public wellbeing and private interest becomes apparent when a culture improves, resulting in the rise of corruption as a problem. This problem can lead to the entrance of new groups to the current political system, or it can promote economic growth if government creates it through the expanse of government regulation. Though corruption may weaken the current regime, it can make political parties stronger, and in fact promote political development in countries where the regime has too much authority.[14] Theda Skocpol states that social revolutions are rapid and basic transformations of a societys state and class structures. What makes Social Revolutions important is that basic changes in social and political structure occur and these changes take place by means of intense sociopolitical conflict.[15] In the end, these changes lead to the collapse of one system and the erection a new one. The French Revolution was a social and political one that supplanted feudalism with capitalism. People did not just get rid of the monarchy, but also they killed thousands of aristocrats who had taken advantage of people for centuries. Peasants made up most of the people and the feudal relationship between those peasants and landlords was eradicated. It paved the way for capitalist relationships of manufacture and trade. In â€Å"Comparative Revolutionary Movements,† Thomas H. Greene argues that if economic conditions of a state worsen, they can lead to a revolution.[16] The reason for the economic downturn, which led to the overturn of the government in Ghana, was the worsening agricultural production that caused great trade imbalance, a huge overseas loan, and extremely high unemployment rates.[17] Likewise, the economic crisis between 1970s and 1980s in Poland exploded enormous revolts and high rates of discontent.[18] Neil Smelser states that economic issues, such as unemployment, food scarcities, rising food prices, and decreased earnings are related to the upsurge of violence between Mexico and England in a situation similar to what was seen before the French Revolution.[19] One of the most important factors that gave rise to the Mexican revolution in 1911 was the economic crisis that the country experienced at the end of Porfirio Diaz’s rule. High levels of inflation and unemployment rates in the last four years of Diaz`s reign, causing Mexico to experience deterioration and stagnation. Decline in the price of sugar, which was the country’s chief export product, was the main reason behind the decline in the Mexican economy. Likewise, in Cuba, the over-dependence on sugar as an economic incentive brought about high levels of unemployment rate and worsening economic conditions when exports to the U.S. diminished. The economic crisis of the late 1950s was only credited to sugar plantation and following unemployment. This over-dependence on single business, together with widespread corruption and nepotism by the Batista government also brought about increasing unemployment rates, particularly during non-growing seasons. The living standard in Cuba decreased dramatically because Cuban wages were unable to contend with high inflation levels during the 1950s. [20] History of revolutions in Egypt Making revolution is not something new for Egyptians because they have had three momentous revolutions in their history. One of them was he 1881 Urabi Revolution which dethroned a crooked and comprador monarchs. Another one was the Revolution of 1919, which almost overthrew British military hegemony, and the other one was 1952 revolution, which initiated the military despotism of Nasser, Sadat, and Mubarak for sixty years. Creating the second parliamentary regime on the African Continent, the first revolution turned out to be successful before foreign military intervention changed the form of government. After the defeat, the British formed a colonial rule in Egypt for more than seventy years. The second revolution was a persistent, widespread revolt controlled by a range of pro-democracy protestors from many different civil societies. Although violently suppressed, it did compel the British to make some concessions. The third revolution in Egypt is different from the first two becau se it was a revolution that went out of its way to restrict popular involvement. [21] Anyhow, in 1881 it finally ended the regime of the royal family and started a course of British removal from Egypt. Views on the Causes of the Egyptian Revolution What are the causes that gave rise to this important synergy and resistance? Three main reasons have emerged to explain this mystery: technology, Tunisia, and discomfort.[22] It is obvious that Tunisian unrest was a catalyst, motivating Egyptians to rush out into the streets. The Tunisian government was even more oppressive than the government of Egypt. So if the Tunisians were able to get rid of their ruthless dictator, why could the Egyptians not manage? Tunisian upheaval might have been the starting point, but there are many other important changes in Egypt’s political and social background that also give rise to an explanation for the revolution. Egyptians had increasingly resorted to protests and street politics to claim their demands and disrupt the position of their monarchs. Since 2004, Egypt had seen an increasing number of protests and rallies led by textile and health workers, judges, doctors, pharmacists, lawyers, transportation workers and even property tax collec tors. These workers wanted better salaries and working conditions, and relief from the harsh poverty that has distressed most of the people, whereas the rich became obviously richer and public organizations that in the past delivered service for poor Egyptians descended toward disrepair and jobs decreased as well.[23] People fell into a miserable situation where there were no hopes, nor dreams left for a better future for their children. There are many other assessments regarding the origins of the Egyptian 2011 Revolution. Political thinker and strategist Dr. Tarek Heggy, one of Egypt’s more famous authors on the subject of political reform in Egypt, states that the Egyptian people’s desire for democracy, the ruling system and legal elections were the main motives for the revolution. Another specialist Mohammed Fadel states that bribery and corruption in the government were the most important reasons behind the revolution.[24] Mona El-Ghobashy expresses in her article that the 2011 revolution occurred because there had been an unexpected change in the equal distribution of resources between ruled and rulers.[25] She also provides three reasons for the revolution: â€Å"technology, Tunisia and tribulations.†[26] Moreover, Ursula Lindsey has argued that social media, whereas it did not directly bring about the upheaval, shared a spectacular role in connecting the people who would join latter in the protests.[27] The Bank Information Center (BIC)[28] in 2007 reported that the World Bank had shown the following problems as among the most tenacious challenges that Egypt faced in fighting poverty and maintaining sustainable development: high unemployment, increasing poverty, social and economic inequality, high budget deficit, and net public debt. Every problem, whether it was corruption, the country’s foreign policy, economic conditions or social problems, played a role in motivating Egypt’ s people to revolt. The people, particularly young people, had important access to use of information and communication networks, such as mobile phone services, new social media and TV were important as events blossomed. While the government used the state information, disseminating systems to spread propaganda against the rebellions, the protesters dispersed their message by using means that was creative, disciplined, and revolutionizing. The victory of the revolution, at least for its main demand, resignation of Mubarak, was associated with defamation of state-controlled newscast, a blossoming of home-produced media of all kinds.[29] While social media did not create the Egyptian uprising, they played an immense role in getting together many of the young people who would ultimately join the demonstrations. We Are All Khalid Sa‘id was one of the Facebook groups that was created in 2010 to honor a young man beaten by police and died, having more than half-million members in the protests on January 25, 2011. These groups were instrumental in organizing the protests and a new expression has come into the Egyptian language. The internet-led generation that organized the initial protests is known as the Facebook Kids.[30] In general, street politics and in particular, the Arab street politics were more complicated. The Arab street is chiefly an appearance of public sentiment, but it has experienced important changes in its style and way of expression. Street politics is the contemporary theater of discontent people. It has played a great role in such massive political events as the French Revolution, anti-colonial fights, nineteenth-century industrial movements, the velvet revolutions in Eastern Europe, and various anti-war protests. For ordinary people, the street is the main site of politics, or and it is the chief place to spend time for those who do not generally have positions of power. It is at the same time social and cultural, continuous and present, a home of the strange and the familiar, the visible and the verbal, the street symbolizes a complex place where opinions and attitudes are formed, spread and voiced in a unique way.[31] Economic inequalities and poverty among different groups of society are important precursors for many revolutions. Welch and Taintor mention those concepts in addition to rapid economic worsening, poverty and inequalities between manufacturing and the distribution of that merchandise.[32] Cynthia McClintock argues that the inconsistency between global and domestic markets causes the latter to depend on the former concerning reliance on industrialized states for technology and money.[33] Schultz and Slater state that this dependence essentially triggers the separation of society and diminishing of rural population.[34] The chronic structural problems affecting the Arab world came to a head prior to 2011 through a combination of persistently high unemployment, especially among youth (and educated youth at that), rampant corruption, internal regional and social inequalities, and a further deterioration of economic conditions because of the global 2008 financial crisis and food price increases. Even the initial event in Tunisia that exploded into the Arab Spring upheaval was related to economics. The Tunisian street seller,  ­Mohamed Bouazizi, burnt himself because of his conditions of poverty. [1] Ted Robert Gurr, Why men rebel, Princeton, N.J.: Published for the Center of International Studies, Princeton University [by] Princeton University Press, 1970, 11. [2] Ibid., 58. [3] Ibid., 210. [4] Jeff Goodwin, No Other Way Out: States and Revolutionary Movements, 1945-1991 (Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 9. [5] Jack A. Goldstone, Toward a Fourth Generation of Revolutionary Theory, Annual Review of Political Science 4, no. 1 (06, 2001), 142. [6] Theda Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia, and China (Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1979), 4. [7] Theda Skocpol, France, Russia, China: A Structural Analysis of Social Revolutions, Comparative Studies in Society and History 18, no. 2 (Apr., 1976), 177. [8] Charles Tilly, Does Modernization Breed Revolution? Comparative Politics 5, no. 3, Special Issue on Revolution and Social Change (Apr., 1973), 425-447. [9] James DeFronzo, Revolutions and Revolutionary Movements (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 2007), 12. [10] James DeFronzo, Revolutions and Revolutionary Movements, 13-14. [11] Jack A. Goldstone, Understanding the Revolutions of 2011: Weakness and Resilience in Middle Eastern Autocracies, Foreign Affairs 90, no. 3 (May/Jun 2011, 2011), 8-16. [12] Samuel P. Huntington, Political order in changing societies, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1968 41. [13] Samuel P. Huntington, Political order in changing societies, 59. [14] Ibid., 69-70. [15] Theda Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions, 3. [16] Thomas H. Greene, Comparative Revolutionary Movements (New Jersey: Prentice Hall Publishing, 1990), 19. [17] Greene, Comparative Revolutionary Movements, 96. [18] Ibid., 97. [19] Neil J. Smelser and Richard Swedberg, the Handbook of Economic Sociology, (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), 73. [20] Brian H. Pollitt, Sugar, Dependency, and the Cuban Revolution (Glasgow, Scotland: University of Glasgow, 1985), 196-197. [21] Jeannie Lynn Sowers and Christopher J. Toensing, The Journey to Tahrir: Revolution, Protest, and Social Change in Egypt (London; New York: Verso, 2012), 48. [22] Ibid., 21. [23] â€Å"The Architects of the Egyptian Revolution,† The Nation, Saba Mahmood February 14, 2011 [24] Mohamed Fadel, Public Corruption and the Egyptian Revolution of January 25: Can Emerging International Anti-Corruption Norms Assist Egypt Recover Misappropriated Public Funds? Harvard International Law journal, volume 52, April 2011, 293. [25] El-Ghobashy Mona, The Journey to Tahrir, The praxis of the Egyptian revolution, 22 edited by Jeannie Sowers and ChrisToensing, 22. [26] El-Ghobashy Mona, The Journey to Tahrir, 21. [27]El-Ghobashy Mona, The Journey to Tahrir, 54. [28] Bank Information Center (BIC).http://www.bicusa.org,accessed on (October 19, 2013). [29] Jeannie Lynn Sowers, Christopher J. Toensing, The Journey to Tahrir, 53. [30] El-Ghobashy Mona, The Journey to Tahrir, 54. [31]Jeannie Lynn Sowers, Christopher J. Toensing, The Journey to Tahrir, 75. [32] Claude E. Welch and Mavis B. Taintor, Revolution and Political Change, (California: Wadsworth Publishing, 1972), 149. [33] Cynthia McClintock, Revolutionary Movements in Latin America: El Salvador’s FMLN and Peru’s Shining Path, (Washington DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1998). [34] Schultz and Slater, â€Å"Revolution and Political Change in the Third World,† 34.

Buddhism (The Buddha)

The Buddha sought to show us how to overcome suffering by attaining Nibbana. Buddhism is the fourth largest religion in the world today. Its history that now span some two and a half centuries began from the birth of its founder, Prince Siddhartha Gautama. Most scholars agree that Siddharta who became known as Buddha was an actual historical persona. He began the religion and philosophy of Buddhism when he reached Enlightenment in 535 BCE while meditating under a Bodhi tree following his abandonment of the life of luxury (The Buddha).Beliefs and Ethics Central to Buddhism is the understanding of the nature of humans and the causes of human suffering or dukkha. The Buddhists hold the viewpoint that human suffering lays in ignorance, concluding that it is a condition brought about by conflict and stress inherent in human existence and the interaction with the world (Buddhist Ethics 2005). There are various schools of Buddhism such that it has no one bible or sacred texts but instead, a vast collection of authoritative texts from different traditions.Theravada Buddhism has the Tipitaka or Pali canon; Mahayana Buddhism has the Chinese Buddhist Tripitaka, and the Tibetan branch has the Kangyur and Tengyur, among others (Strong, 2008). In sum, the following constitute part of the basic beliefs in Buddhism: A. The Four Noble Truths 1. Life is suffering or dukkha; 2. The origin of suffering is attachment or craving; 3. Attachments can be overcome, and this cessation of suffering is called nirvana; 4. The way to accomplish the cessation of suffering is the Eightfold Path (Boerre).B. The Eightfold Path – consists of eight elements that can be grouped into the three categories, as follows: †¢ Wisdom or prajna – right view and right aspiration or intention †¢ Morals – rights speech; right action and right livelihood †¢ Meditation or samadhi – right effort; right mindfulness, and right concentration (Strong, 2008). C. Karma  œ all of human actions bear consequences within a cycle of human craving and suffering, such that our lives are always conditioned by our past actions (Buddhist Teachings). D.Buddhist ethics or precepts termed as sila – made up of the four conditions of chastity, calmness, quiet and extinguishment. According to the Karmic Law, keeping sila is meritorious and serves as good cause to bring about happy or peaceful effects (Buddhism 2008). E. Rebirth – consciousness continues beyond death, finding expression in another life or reincarnation in the future (Buddhist Teachings). F. Enlightenment – through the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path, one is liberated from karma towards Enlightenment, the state of being that transcends suffering (Buddhist Teachings).Customs and Festivals Because there are many schools of Buddhism that have emerged throughout the centuries, the rituals and practices of Buddhists vary according to tradition in different parts of the globe . Significant Buddhist customs include the following: A. Veneration of the Buddha – refers to the honoring of, and meditation, on the qualities of the Buddha. B. Pilgrimage – the main purposes of the pilgrimage to the many Buddhist centers is the fostering of spiritual discipline or the fulfillment of a vow.C. Ordination – the rite of passage of anyone wishing to be a Buddhist monk involves the renouncing of secular life and accepting life in the monastic sangha as a novice (Venerating). Buddhist festivals are important holy days celebrated in various traditions, which include: †¢ Dharma Day, which marks the beginning of the teachings of Buddha; †¢ Losar, the most important Tibetan holiday that marks the New Year (lunar); †¢ Parinirvana, a Mahayan Buddhist holiday marking Buddha's death;†¢ Wesak festival, the most important festival in the Buddhist calendar, celebrates the birthday of Buddha on the full moon of the month of May. Sangha Day th at celebrates the spiritual community (Holy days). The divisions of Buddhism have sometimes been called sects or schools, but in this book I have used the word lineage, as it seems to fit better with Buddhist experience. A Buddhist is one who has taken refuge, and he or she has taken refuge in a specific tradition whose teachers stretch back, or are claimed to stretch back, in an unbroken line or lineage to Shakyamuni Buddha.There is one over-arching principle in the effective spread of Buddhism: skillful means. As Buddhism asks the individual, so it asks a culture: What is it, do you think, that will bring you the most happiness? When it has heard the response, Buddhism says, under its breath, But that will only bring you samsaric happiness, and continues, out loud, That is good, the Dharma can help you. Then, starting from that samsaric desire, it seeks a way of assisting the individual or culture to break out into extra-samsaric joy.Most countries into which Buddhism spread were what we might call low cultures, that is, they had rich local traditions but little sense of nationhood or broad cultural identity, and did not have a national religion or philosophy. Buddhism was able to supply this lack. It provided a Great Tradition perspective, encouraging local customs to coalesce into national polities and incorporating them in a supra-national worldview. The price was the downgrading of the local customs.Indigenous deities were said either to have converted to Buddhism, becoming Dharma Protectors (dharma-pala), or foolishly to have rejected it, thus being demoted to demons. The only country in which this did not happen smoothly was China. It had already developed, in Confucianism and Taoism, sophisticated national systems, and so was not the â€Å"pushover† that, for example, Tibet was. Buddhism had to be more humble as it approached the Chinese, and it has often smelled, to good upstanding Confucians, of foreigners and their nefarious plots.Even so, t he cultural blending was such that Buddhism came to be counted as the third religion of China, and the eirenic phrase ‘The three religions are a harmonious unity’ was coined. No other foreign system, other than Communism, has been able to penetrate Chinese culture so completely. Buddhism says that it can be said that since the human problem is essentially one of ignorance, and since this is a phenomenon that exists in varying degrees of intensity, it is always worth examining any claims to truth.This is especially the case when the Absolute Truth attested by Buddhism is beyond perfect verbalization, for another religious or philosophical tradition, despite apparent conflict of ideas, may actually be trying with different terms to express the same ultimate perception which is enshrined in Buddhism itself. Rival truth claims are, then, not necessarily hostile and the Buddhist should feel it possible to engage in interested discussion with advocates of other ideologies. Fu rther, it is always possible that other religions may be able to suggest useful techniques for the attainment or apprehension of Absolute Truth.Yet the Buddhist knows that the propositions which attempt to approximate Truth must be submitted to the light of the ultimate Buddhist experience, and if they cannot be seen to lead toward this, they are in genuine and decisive conflict with Buddhism. Each religion, then, is open to dialogue, but each presents a touchstone by which authority is to be tested – the experience which suggests the U+016nyatA concept for Buddhism, and for Christianity the experience of God as he expresses himself in Christ.Interestingly enough, this emphasis on a decisive experience or intuition of Truth means that ardent adherents of both recognize the significance of Kierkegaard’s dictum about subjectivity being truth and know that there are important respects in which a man committed to another religious experience may yet understand mine far bet ter than a purely objective observer can ever hope to do. To study and record the observable data of a religious tradition is utterly useless for the purpose of understanding what the religious man considers important about it.Thus the dialogue between Christians and Buddhists may well be more productive of sympathetic understanding (even with strongly affirmed disagreement) than that between either Christians or Buddhists with disinterested social scientists. Resources Strong, John. Experience of Buddhism. Retrieved 07 Apr. 2008 from Shippensburg University Site: http://webspace. ship. edu/cgboer/buddhawise. html. Buddhism. (2008, April 7). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 20:38, April 10, 2008, from http://en.wikipedia. org/w/index. php? title= Buddhism&oldid=169957239. Buddhist Ethics and Social Criticism. (Updated 21 June 2005). Retrieved 07 Apr. 2008 from Image India Site: http://india_resource. tripod. com/buddhism. htm. Buddhist Teachings. Retrieved 07 Apr. 2008 from bbc. co. uk Site: http://www. bbc. co. uk/religion/religions/buddhism/beliefs/buddhateachings. shtml. Holy Days. Retrieved 07 Apr. 2008 from bbc. co. uk Site: http://www. bbc. co. uk/religion/religions/buddhism/holydays/.‘Religious text. ’ (2008, October 23). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 14:44, April 9, 2008, from http://en. wikipedia. org/w/index. php? title= Religious_text&oldid=166613250. The Buddha. Retrieved 07 Apr. 2008 from bbc. co. uk Site: http://www. bbc. co. uk/ religion/religions/buddhism/history/history. shtml. Venerating the Buddha, Pilgrimage and Ordination. Retrieved 07 Apr. 2008 from bbc. co. uk Site: http://www. bbc. co. uk/religion/religions/buddhism/ customs/customs. shtml.

Invincible

It's taken over 30 years to make its way to the big screen but the Cinderella story of ex-teacher/bartender Vince Papale's triumph in the world of professional football came to life on the big screen in Invincible in 2006. Papale captured the attention of Philadelphia Eagles fans when he made it onto the team after Coach Dick Vermeil held open tryouts. The film version stars Mark Wahlberg as the lifelong football fan who just wanted his hometeam to play with heart – and maybe win a few game. Invincible follows the rules of the football film genre very closely but also added a couple of innovations to popular sport genre. The movie followed popular cliches of football films with the â€Å"new coach† who has radical new ideas and during the final game of the movie the starring team is down at halftime. One major cliche that Invincible innovates is the cliche that the star actor is the leader on the team; instead, he is the low man on the team and actually doesn’t make any great contributions to the team. In Invincible, the new and young coach Dick Vermeil is new to town and has a whole lot to prove. As much like most football films with a new coach, he has huge radical ideas for the teams operation. This is represented in the theme that he opens tryouts to anyone in the community to wants to play for the Philadelphia Eagles, mostly as a publicity stunt to bring fan support back up. This theme is also seen in â€Å"Remember the Titans† and â€Å"We are Marshall. This cliche often leads to a sub-cliche that the new coach has several obstacles to overcome and receives some sort of negative criticism in the early scenes of the film. This again is also shown in Invincible when the coach heavily gossiped about in the local pub where Papale works at. A second major cliche that is seen in numerous football films is the dramatic â€Å"final game† where the starring team is losing at halftime only to win in a last minute victory. In Invincible’s case, the final game is against the Dallas Cowboys in a conference championship game. The team is of course down and out about to lose it all when all of the sudden Papale forces a fumble on a punt return that gives the Eagles a bit of hope. The Eagles go to score on the returning drive with a crucial kickoff to the cowboys. Paple who only plays special teams sprints down the field to recover the kickoff and run the ball into the endzone for a touchdown puts the Eagles in the lead for a victory. The fact that Paple score a touchdown symbolizes the message that of the film which is that anyone can do anything they desire as long as the put forth the effort and determination. Often in football films the star player is hero of the team or the most talented. In Invincible the star play, Paple, is actually one of the less talented players on the team. Paple isn’t even one of the leaders on the team, for most of the film the rest of the team doesn’t like Paple because they think he doesn’t belong on the team nun the less the NFL. During practice the other players’ intensely try to hurt him so that he may quit or be unable to play. Paple turns out to be a hero for his community rather than a hero for the team. His motivation to keep going is his teammate’s disapproval and his friend’s support, which I sends a message that one must always pull forward even if his peers or colleges are against them. Invincible is a great football film that relies on the classic under-dog story that for some reason never gets old. The movie sends us messages that perseverance and determination lead to great things, which is very satisfying and compelling to witness. While this film follows most of the popular football film cliches, it still has its own key elements that make it unique. Football films such as Invincible and other renditions will always be cranked out of Hollywood on a regular basis for decades to come, but there’s just something about watching the beloved characters run down the field in slow-motion and jump high in the air for a dramatic last minute win, that never gets tiring to watch.

Abraham Lincolns Gettysburg Address, Facts and Myths

Abraham Lincolns Gettysburg Address, Facts and Myths On November 19, 1863, President Abraham Lincoln delivered a few appropriate remarks at the dedication of Soldiers National Cemetery in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. From a platform set some distance away from the ongoing burial operations, Lincoln addressed a crowd of 15,000 people. The president spoke for three minutes. His speech contained just 272 words, including the observation that the world will little note, nor long remember what we say here. Yet Lincolns Gettysburg Address endures. In the view of historian James McPherson, it stands as the worlds foremost statement of freedom and democracy and the sacrifices required to achieve and defend them. Over the years, historians, biographers, political scientists, and rhetoricians have written countless words about Lincolns brief speech. The most comprehensive study remains Garry Willss Pulitzer Prize-winning book Lincoln at Gettysburg: The Words That Remade America (Simon Schuster, 1992). In addition to examining the political circumstances and oratorical antecedents of the speech, Wills dispels several myths, including these: The silly but persistent myth is that [Lincoln] jotted his brief remarks on the back of an envelope [while  riding the train  to  Gettysburg]. . . . In fact, two people testified that Lincolns speech was mainly composed in Washington, before he left for Gettysburg.Though we call Lincolns text the Gettysburg Address, that title clearly belongs to [Edward] Everett. Lincolns contribution, labeled remarks, was intended to make the dedication formal (somewhat like ribbon-cutting at modern openings). Lincoln was not expected to speak at length.Some later accounts would emphasize the length of the main speech [Everetts two-hour oration], as if that were an ordeal or an imposition on the audience. But in the mid-19th century, a talk of several hours was customary and expected.Everetts voice was sweet and expertly modulated; Lincolns was high to the point of shrillness, and his Kentucky accent offended some eastern sensibilities. But Lincoln derived an advantage from his high tenor voic e. . . . He knew a good deal about rhythmic delivery and meaningful inflections. Lincolns text was polished, his delivery emphatic, he was interrupted by applause five times. [T]he myth that Lincoln was disappointed in the result- that he told the unreliable [Ward] Lamon that his speech, like a bad plow, wont scour- has no basis. He had done what he wanted to do. Above all its worth noting that Lincoln composed the address without the aid of speechwriters or advisers. As Fred Kaplan recently observed in Lincoln: The Biography of a Writer (HarperCollins, 2008), Lincoln is distinguished from every other president, with the exception of Jefferson, in that we can be certain that he wrote every word to which his name is attached. Words mattered to Lincoln- their meanings, their rhythms, their effects. On February 11, 1859, two years before he became president, Lincoln delivered a lecture to the Phi Alpha Society of Illinois College. His topic was Discoveries and Inventions: Writing- the art of communicating thoughts to the mind, through the eye- is the great invention of the world. Great in the astonishing range of analysis and combination which necessarily underlies the most crude and general conception of it- great, very great in enabling us to converse with the dead, the absent, and the unborn, at all distances of time and of space; and great, not only in its direct benefits, but greatest help, to all other inventions. . . .Its utility may be conceived, by the reflection that, to it we owe everything which distinguishes us from savages. Take it from us, and the Bible, all history, all science, all government, all commerce, and nearly all social intercourse go with it. Its Kaplans belief that Lincoln was the last president whose character and standards in the use of language avoided the distortions and other dishonest uses of language that have done so much to undermine the credibility of national leaders. To re-experience Lincolns words, try reading aloud his two best-known speeches: The Gettysburg AddressThe Second Inaugural Address of Abraham Lincoln Afterward, if youd like to test your familiarity with Lincolns rhetoric, take our Reading Quiz on the Gettysburg Address.

How Societal Factors Influence Divorce in America Essays

How Societal Factors Influence Divorce in America Essays How Societal Factors Influence Divorce in America Paper How Societal Factors Influence Divorce in America Paper Discuss how societal factors influence divorce In America, based on research. Can you Identify additional factors that you think lead to divorce? Societal factors affect marriages and Influence divorce in America In many ways. Divorce Is legal separations of duties and responsibilities of marriage between couples. Divorce has many types to suit each situation some types are contested divorce, At-fault divorce, and No-fault divorce. Divorce and many its many forms affect the children some way or other. In America studies done by Jenifer L. Barrater and Roseland of the Education Resource Information Center found that the 1 percent increase unemployment rate affected the decrease of 1 percent of divorce rates in America in 2011. This finding of this research makes a lot of sense because people were financially challenged to afford the legal cost. Age of marriage affects divorce in America research been by Forest Institute of Professional Psychology in Springfield Missouri stats that when a couples that got married under the age of 25 as a higher chance of getting divorce than those who got married after that age. I read somewhere In the class book allowing the world wars that Divorce was greater social acceptance which Influence greatly In Americas today. One more factor I did wanted to add was Dual-worker Marriages. Dual-worker marriage couple usually has no or little time for relationship. Factors that I think that lead to divorce are cheating, abuse, financial stress, family. Cheating includes physical, emotional, or online cheating is relatively a new form of cheating online cheating involves lusting after someone or having an emotional connection with someone other than a spouse. Financial stress factors into divorce in any ways in can dispute peace and harmony in the home and it can cause blame games causing a couple to battle each other instead of battling the problem. Abuse like cheating comes In different forms like physical, emotional and Just like cheating It comes In patterns and cycles. Other factors I think that leads In divorce are education finished, social class and family stability, fading romantic Interest and leftover from a prior relationships. All those factors In one way or other contribute to divorce In some way other. Society has always impacted the way we live: the traditional family who ere farmed for food has gone away to the model families buying whatever they need in the urban areas. Divorce is no except to those changes. Stats show that divorce and marriage are effect by the same society we live in from depressions to wars to recessions. In my opinion I think its good that Americans are waiting to get married. According to the book The Marriage and Family Experience before 1974, the view of marriage as lasting till death do us a part reflected reality but today approximately 35 percent to 45 percent of all new marriages are likely to end in divorce. My dad has been married to my step mother for 14 years, at one point I suggest they should get divorce, neither one had any comments but as I looked back know I understand that part of the reason for staying together had a lot to do with me and my brother. I believe that divorce Is acceptable If the marriage cant be repaired after seeking help from multiple professionals and those professionals me the divorce is like a burning building and you and your family is on the highest floor with one fire escape but only one person if going to make it out alive. You may be divorced and happy but everybody else is affected for life.

Sources of Stress and Anxiety in Adolescent Students Study Assignment

Sources of Stress and Anxiety in Adolescent Students Study - Assignment Example Stress is the response or the reaction that a body shows when faced with disturbances that may be external or internal in nature and is actually a process by which one meets the challenges and threats in our daily lives (Myers, 2005). In an adolescent, if stress enhances the learning abilities it is known as good stress (â€Å"Eustress†), but if it inhibits or suppresses the capabilities and inherent potentialities of the adolescent, then it is bad stress (â€Å"Distress†) and must be avoided. An adolescent may face stress owing to parental pressure to excel in their studies, poor time management while organizing studies, while planning for their future which may often be hampered by parental interference, and also often due to impending school report cards and the parental reaction thereafter. This article will examine these causal factors for ‘adolescent stress related to studies’, and will explore its outward manifestations in various ways, like psycholo gical, physiological and social dysfunction in adolescents, and interventions to lessen stress. â€Å"Children are constantly being subjected to stress and conflict in their external environment: from family school and work, and nature; and in their internal environment: from their feelings of anger, anxiety, sadness and loneliness† (Arnold, 52). Stress may manifest itself in various ways, which may in effect cause our bodies to function differently as a reaction to the stressful situation. Khalid in his research papers on adolescent students has shown that over one-third (35.5%) of adolescents have had stress (Khalid, 33-37) while Bawens and Jack in their papers have concluded that adolescent stress comes mostly from school and are related to disproportionate amounts of assignments amounting to huge workload, frequent class examinations, biased behavior of the school teachers and the indignity of lagging behind the school peers in class studies.

Jesus Film Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Jesus Film - Essay Example After His baptism and temptation, Jesus returns to his hometown of Nazareth and reads from the book of Isaiah. Several other times, references are made to other books of the Bible, especially as prophecy that Jesus fulfilled. Jesus: Fact or Fiction? is based on the Gospel of Luke. What is the significance of the Bible for understanding who Jesus is? Referring Jesus to the other books of the bible, more so the Old Testament seeks to reveal his divine nature, and purpose of restoring man’s relationship with God. It also helps in demystifying who he was to the Jews who expected a â€Å"liberator† of an earthly nature. The most-significant parable of Jesus is that of the Prodigal son. This parable refers to the relationship between man and God. From the parable, God can forgive and restore once man realizes his faults, confesses his sins and seeks God again. Jesus death in the film signifies the consequences of sin as death. He sacrifices himself, dying on behalf of man, and so the price has been paid, and man has been made free. Jesus resurrection reveals his godly nature. He is no longer human as only God has the power over death. In comparing the film to the Gospel of Luke, it is surprising that the film has revised, expanded, altered, and fictionalized, in some instances the Gospel of Luke. Even with these modifications, the message about Jesus according to the Gospel of Luke is delivered home. Jesus’ person and deeds are important to a Christian worldview in the sense that he bridges man and God. It is through Him that a man shall see God. Jesus is portrayed as the â€Å"friend of man† even in man’s sinful state. He is man’s vindicator before God. Jesus person is simple and likable by the pure, destitute and hopeless in the societies who often are discriminated against. Jesus is the second member of the Holy Trinity, and therefore God the son